الإبداع والتميز في تخطيط المدن

HARMONIZING THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS WITH INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN JUBAIL INDUSTRIAL CITY

Dr. Umar G. Benna and Mr. Attyah M Al-Deufi

College of Architecture & Planning, King Faisal University, P. O. Box 2397, Dammam 31451

For many years the environmental quality concerns have been considered by many people to be in perpetual and inevitable conflict with industrial development.  However in one of the largest industrial complexes ever built, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu (RCJY) has shown that prudent planning can successfully harmonize the competing demands of environment and industrial development. This paper analyzes the proactive and reactive policies as well as the policy-instruments of this strategy, which tries to keep balance between the needs of industrial development and the enhancement of the environment.  Using available information from the Jubail Industrial City, the paper next highlights the experiences so far gained in the environmental management efforts by the RCJY and concludes by identifying the challenges and prospects facing it.

1. INTRODCTION 

For many years the environmental quality concerns have been considered by many people to be in perpetual and inevitable conflict with industrial development.  However in one of the largest industrial complexes ever built, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu (RCJY) has shown that prudent planning can successfully harmonize the competing demands of environment quality and industrial development.  Informed by the lessons of the experiences of both the industrialized and industrializing countries, and guided by a careful assessment of the local arid conditions, the RCJY has developed “harmonization” strategies to manage the environment quality in its industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu [1]. 

The best testimony of success for this policy are the numerous prizes awarded by many international agencies to the RCJY and to many factories operating in Jubail Industrial City (JIC) for their contribution to harmonious and exemplary coexistence between industrialization and environmental quality.  In recognition of its sound environment related strategic choices, plans, policies, and programs, the RCJY in 1988 received two prestigious international prizes. These are the United Nation Environmental Program’s (UNEP) Sasakawa Environment Prize and the Kuwait-based Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment.

The Sasakawa prize is awarded to those ”who have made an outstanding global contribution to the management and protection of the environment”.  The citation to the award recognized the:

 “…excellent planning and implementation of environmentally sound management of the industrial complexes…..The Saudi Arabian towns of Jubail and Yanbu are believed to be among the most environmentally clean of any comparable urban concentrations in the world, testimony to the work from 1975 of the town’s Royal Commission, which became a blueprint for successful environmentally conscious urban growth in the developing world” [ 2 ]. 

Besides the RCJY, many Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC) affiliated primary industries in JIC have received international recognition for the efforts in enhancing safety and environmental quality.  SHARQ, IBN ZAHR, AR RAZI, PETROKEMYA are among those who received recognition. SHARQ, for example, as a result of its serious efforts has achieved 7 million Man-hours without any lost time accident, which earned it the prestigious “Sword of Honour” award from British Safety Council on four consecutive occasions since 1991. It has also won “ RoSPA Gold Award” from the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents on two consecutive occasions since 1993.  In addition, it has received “Award of Honour” from National Safety Council of the USA, along with a “Zero Accident Flag” award. It has also won a certificate of appreciation from the Japan Industrial Safety and Health Association (JISHA), while Union Carbide Corporation, USA, once recognized it for its achievements in safety [3].   Also IBN ZAHR received National Safety Award from the British Safety Council, and Gold Award for Occupational Safety from the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA) and another Award from National Safety Council of the USA in 1995 [4].

In view of this international recognition of the RCJY’s environmental policy, it can be safely assume that this experience is worthy of emulation by other countries seeking to industrialize and to simultaneously protect the environment. This paper therefore emphasizes the international significance of the RCJY’s experiment, then identifies the proactive and reactive strategies that have been used to implement the harmonizing policy, and then discusses the challenges and prospects that seem to so far emerge from the experiment.  The work of RCJY extends to both JIC and Yanbu Industrial City, but the paper draws mainly from the experiences of JIC from which more data was found.

1.1 International Importance of the Project

The bold decision by Saudi Arabia in the 1970s to build new industrial towns in Jubail on the Arabian Gulf and in Yanbu on the Red Sea coast, was of international significance for many reasons. The first reason is the established policy of making Jubail and Yanbu models of environmental planning as well as efficient industrial centers, especially at a time when the industrialized countries were worried about the unpleasant environmental side effects of their industrial developments.  Secondly, the search was on for new frontiers for settlements to meet mankind’s exploding rate of growth and thirdly the enormous scale of the project at a time when many countries were cutting down on projects of that type. We shall now discuss each to these reasons in turn.  Each of these reasons will now be discussed more fully. 

1. 2 Environment and Industry in Harmony Experiment

Normally there should be no conflict between urbanization and industrialization on the one hand and the environment on the other.  Urbanization and Industrialization are mechanisms designed to enhance the quality of life, which is what the promotion of environment quality is also seeking to achieve.  This perception seems to have guided the planning, development, and management of JIC.  Informed by the lessons from the more industrialized countries [5] the RCJY realized the importance of maintaining a harmonious balance between the demands of industrial complex, its supporting community, and enhancing the quality of the environmental.

The building and maintaining a large park for heavy, secondary and light industries is a complex undertaking by itself and has many environmental, economic and social consequence. The building and maintaining of residential community of about a quarter of a million is yet another elaborate activity that requires a deep understanding of the relationships within and between the emerging natural and social ecosystems.  Both the industrial park and its supporting community were planned, built and commissioned in a short period of about ten years and yet throughout this period, the goal of achieving a high level of environmental quality was studiously pursued. The pursuit of this goal seems to have been intensified in the management of JIC after the city was formally commissioned. 

Table 1.   Population, Employment by Economic Sector in Jubail Industrial City 1994

Source: [6] 

Most indicators of development point to emergence of JIC as a mature city.  In terms of population for example Table 1 shows that in 1994 the total population generated by the city was about 98,500 of which 61,600 (62.5%) live within the city, of which 71% was male.  With regards to employment, it is noteworthy that in same year the total employment generated was 53,400 of which 58.6% was in the industrial sector, public sector 32.5% and the service sector 9.0% [6].  Table 2 shows the stages of development of industries, their estimated costs and rate of occupancy of leasable area in JlC in 1997.  The primary industries, mainly of petrochemical type, are clearly the backbone of this sector.  With 16 industries, of which seven have expansion programs underway, they have 72.4% occupancy rate and their investments amount to about 90% of the sector’s total. This high degree of achievements in the primary industries was largely due to the initial decision to create SABIC and charge it with the responsibility of promoting the basic industrial development in the Kingdom. 

Table 2:  Stages, Cost and Occupancy Rate of Industries in Jubail Industrial City, 1997

Source:  [7]

Secondary industrial sector seems a disappointment because its occupancy rate was only 22%, while costs and employment only 8.4% and 1.9% respectively of the industrial park’s totals.  The light manufacturing and support sector seems for active as it has 53% occupancy, employs, and costs about 14% and 2% respectively of the industrial sector’s total [ 7 ].  Thus judging by the soundness of its economic base and its social structure, and in the context of new towns around the world, it seems that JIC is in its prime of its life as a city.

1.3  Advanced Industrial Technology in the Desert

Experiment to settle physically adverse environments is one of the few options open to satisfy mankind’s ever growing demand for settler to meet the population explosion problem.   The physical adverse frontiers for human settlements are deep sea, space colonies, and the two types of deserts, namely cold frozen regions and the hot arid regions. The Saudi Arabian experiment seems to be of necessity rather than by choice because of the country’s pattern of aridity whereby only six percent of its land is semi-arid, 84 percent arid and the remaining 10 percent is extremely arid desert [8, 9].  This experiment is not only of interest to the Arab world most of which has similar aridity pattern to Saudi Arabia, but also to the rest of the world, the total land area of which is estimated to be about one-third arid or semi-arid.

1.4  The Scale of the Project

Turning a piece of empty arid land into modern, resonant and productive city is by itself no mean achievement, but the scale, speed, complexity and the boldness of the project give it an added significance.  JIC covers an area of 780 square kilometers, and very large volume desert sand and mud had to be moved

to provide modern housing for the planned quarter of a million people.  It also have to create and employment opportunities in primary, secondary and in support/service industries.   Many would agree with the Time magazine’s assessment that “Nothing so huge, so costly, has ever before been undertaken by anyone.  Jubail is a project of noon–landing proportion.” [10].

Another international acknowledgement of the scale of the project came from the Guinness Book of Records, which has listed JIC as the “largest building project” in the world.  It said that at its peak the construction engaged 52,000 workers, representing 62 nationalities.  A total of 270 million cubic meters of earth has been dredged and moved, large enough volume to construct a one-meter around the Equator seven times [11]. 

These three factors -attempt to harmonize industrialization with environmental protection, the use of advance technology to turn harsh desert into a lush, safe and comfortable environment, and the sheer scale of the project - all contribute to make JIC’s experience very important to multitudes of disciplines both academicians and practitioners.   Therefore, in view of the potential importance of JIC to planners, architects, engineers, ecologists and developers, it is pertinent to explore the key decisions and actions that contributed to the levels of environmental quality and industrial production so far achieved in JIC.  We shall now discuss the strategies, policies, plans and programs that were put together to bring this exemplary project about.

2. STRATEGIES FOR ENVIRONMENT AND INDUSTRIAL HARMONY

RCJY’s strategies for creating a harmony between the environmental and industry can be analyzed from a number of perspectives.  These strategies can be viewed in term of their degree of the complexity of activities, their scope of activities (comprehensiveness or sectoral), approach to development (wholesale or piecemeal), or in term of the role of public in the project (direct intervention or facilitator of private initiative).  However the concepts of proactive and reactive, which have been suggested by the RCJY [1], are considered suitable and used in the following analysis. 

2.1  Proactive Strategy

Proactive strategy is the management of waste materials from industrial production and from urban growth in order to minimize the effects of pollutants on people and the environment.   In JIC the quality of human health and of the natural environment depends on adequate environmental pollution management, particularly the control of pollution from the primary and secondary industries. The effectiveness of specific instruments used in under this strategy in terms of cost and damage prevention, is usually greater than those used in reactive strategy.   Some elements of the proactive strategy applied in JIC and discuss below include: the use of ecologically-based site selection process, the judicious application land-use planning and urban design instruments, effective use of landscaping, the use of a wide array of regulatory instruments, establishment of monitoring regime, and other preventive measures.   

2.1.1. Site selection process

The site selection process was part of an overall assessment of potential impacts of rapid industrialization and urbanization on the ecosystem of JIC and its immediate region.  It was based on sound ecological principles that analyzed input factors to the site evaluation process. These factors include a) estimated population based on expected employment; b) probable overall density; c) size of the community and its footprint; d) search area to locate the community; e) environmental quality and implementation criteria to identify, evaluate sites within search area. The development potentials seven candidate-sites were evaluated using a computerized technique that varied the importance attached to the factors in Table 3 and criteria of constraints and of residential area choice.

The site selection process was part of an overall assessment of potential impacts of rapid industrialization and urbanization on the ecosystem of Jubail area.  It was based on sound ecological principles that analyzed input factors to the site evaluation process. These factors include a) estimated population based on expected employment; b) probable overall density; c) size of the community and its footprint; d) search area to locate the community; e) environmental quality and implementation criteria to identify, evaluate sites within search area. 

Source: [5] 

The constraints criteria were those that identify areas to be preserved for a number of reasons. These areas include those have high agricultural potentials, those with established vegetation, sites of archeological values, areas of high ecological value, close proximity to the exist Jubail town, and existing mineral resources.  The criteria relating to choice of residential areas are: lack of atmospheric pollution, presence of trees and other vegetation, comfortable temperature and humidity, absence of dust-carrying winds, low noise level, and proximity to the sea. 

2.1.2.      Land use planning and urban design

In order to enhance environmental quality and advance industrial development, a progressive land use planning process was used.  The general goals of environmental quality were reconciled with those of industrial and community development, which gave rise to specific objectives for each sector, and these in turn influenced specific plans, urban design, and programs.  The decisions that promoted harmony between environmental quality and industrial development include:

1)      The use of zoning as an environmental quality tool, whereby industrial zone was separated from the community area by a large buffer zone.

2)      The decision to locate the industrial park was located downwind of the residential community.

3)      The community urban design was guided by shoreline and prevailing breezes, which offered excellent locations for housing, recreation, and social facilities.

4)      The use of urban design criteria including the use of climatic and other natural factors to influence the orientation of buildings, clusters and the various community centers.

5)      A number of urban structure principles were developed to govern spatial relationships between the hierarchy of centers, residential sectors and hierarchy of road network.

6)      The residential area was based on cellular principles: the district was chosen as the basic unit consisting of four sectors, each containing about four neighborhoods.  Each of these is organized around a center and facilities to support the corresponding population size.

7)      The transportation system consists mainly of primary, secondary and pedestrian networks.  The primary network is made up of freeways and expressways, which giver access secondary collector and local roads.  The pedestrian routes connect the different types of centers and provide opportunities for cyclists to freely as well.

2.1.3.  Landscaping

Planned landscaping was an important tool used in JIC to reconcile industrialization and environmental quality.  The landscaping program aimed “ 1) to create a planting image for the city in contrast to the surrounding desert; 2) to provide the maximum amount of shade; 3) to assist in structuring the built environment ” [12].

Jubail Industrial City gives a sense of lushness provides a sharp contrast to the surrounding harsh desert environment. All this has been achieved through bold investment decisions and careful planning. Maximum use has been made of vegetation that is economically feasible and supported by local soil and water supply.  With a wide array of watering system (about 400,000 spray units, 1.5 million units of drip system, and 8,000 flooding units) to nurture various types of trees (over 250,000 units) shrubs (0.8 million units), plant cover with flowers for all seasons (over 0.9 square meters), and grass (about 0.32 million square meters), a barren desert was turned into an oasis [13]. 

The program proposed two basic types of planting. The first is “extensive” approach in which trees are planted in sand with no under-drainage and an average of 250 trees per hectare.  The second is “intensive” landscaping in which a mix of 20% grass, 30% shrubs and the rest 50 succulent trees per hectare was envisaged. The water demand of each approach was an important consideration in choosing which one to use and where.  Table 4 shows the type of landscaping programs proposed for public and private landscaping.  In those areas of the city that have so far been developed, there is evidence that the public sector landscaping program has been implemented to the full and in some cases new innovations have been introduced.

1. Public Landscaping

1.1 Parks: The location and functions of the various parks provided the basis of their landscaping plan.  Within the residential areas, the treatment varies from community park in which intensive tree planting with considerable ground cover is proposed to the smaller informal parks to have few shade trees with play objects set in a sandy floorscape.  For the coastal parks are planned to consist entirely of tree, carefully selected to ensure local identity.

1.2 Landscape Corridors:  The corridors link  a wide variety of local environments; from the sea, clusters of schools and sports fields, highways, community parks, city edge and to the desert.  In view of this and their flexibility to admit unforeseen uses, they should only be lightly landscaped.

1.3 Major Public Buildings:  As the most important architectural features of the community, they will control the general perception of the townscape, that is the use of hard surfaces, walls and street furniture.  To establish a balanced visual image of Jubail, the program, therefore, proposed a skilful blending of the “hard” townscape and the “soft” landscape.

1.4 Roads: Landscape is used for both aesthetic and protective purposes.  Selected trees and shrubs are used to distinguish the various levels of road hierarchy, and to accentuate entry points, landmarks and junctions. Shrubs have been used along the roads to shield vehicle lights from opposite direction and to protect rails and other apparatus.

1.5 Other Public Uses:  Around mosques, schools, sports grounds and offices a judicious mixture of hard and soft landscaping has been used.  Planting has been used in such places to enhance specific locations, screen unsightly uses, reduce sand movement or to decrease noise.

2. Private Landscaping

2.1 Private agencies: Landscape by private firms in both the residential and industrial areas have contributed to pleasant appearance of Jubail. The Royal Commission seems to encourage such landscape planting so that it can be shared with public and semi-public spaces.  The annual “tree planning campaign” could be more effectively used by the Royal Commission to encourage the private sector to be more active in the beautification of the city, not only by means of tree planning but also flower gardening competition.

Source: [5]

2.1.4.  Regulatory instruments

Regulations and reviews are major instruments of ensuring conformance to RCJY’s strategies and plans by private developers, other government agencies, and individuals. In the course of development performance is monitored, deviations are corrected and from time to time the environmental control system itself undergo changes so as to ensure its effectiveness in reducing hazards and nuisances to the public, protect property and to minimize future costs arising from environmental degradation.  Many regulatory instruments such as zoning, urban design and building regulations have been used to guide the development of JIC into an attractive and livable city. Perhaps the most effective tool in achieving a harmonious relationship between the industry and the environmental is the Consolidated Permit Program.  The main elements of this program are described in Table 5.

Source: [ 5 ]

2.1.5.  Pollution monitoring

Monitoring serves to establish threshold, detect trends, enforce regulations, provide forecasts, or warning about possible hazards.  Environmental monitoring of human activity affecting natural elements, are of three types.  The first type is source monitoring where residues enter the environment at point, area, and mobile sources.  The second ambient monitoring, that is measuring of pollutants in air, water, soil, food, or animal tissue.  The third is effect monitoring which seeks to measure consequences of pollutants on human, animal, or plants.  All these types are being carried out, in various forms, in JIC. Many monitoring instruments have been established JIC as an important component of the overall proactive strategy to protect the environment, enhance comfort and conserve energy.  Monitoring of air quality, meteorological, Gulfwater, bio-accumulation, ground water, seawater cooling, and noise are part of this strategy.  Insufficient space will not allow us to deal with each of these instruments hence, as shown in Table 6 only a few are selected so as to indicate the components monitored, the methods used, and the results.

Table 6:  Pollution Control by Monitoring of Selected Elements

Source:  [1]

2.1.6.  Other Preventive Measures

Many other preventive measures have been used by RCJY to control environmental pollution. Just like the measures and programs discussed above, the main objective of these measure is to prevent industrial pollutants from reaching such levels that will adversely affect human health and safety or adversely affect the quality of the environment in JIC and its immediate region.  These measures include the specification of advanced industrial technology that is less pollution and more efficient, effective environmental and public health programs, and the development of a public awareness program.  The nature and scope of these programs are shown in Table 7.

1.       Use of Advanced Technology:  The industrial development has great advantages over

the experiences of the more advanced countries. This is because almost all the industrial machinery used in the city are among the latest models which factor minimal pollution and energy efficiency into their designs.  There is also, for example, the approach of changing a manufacturing process or activity in order to produce less pollution may involve either the production of fewer residuals, by means of an improved process, or the separation and reuse of materials from the waste stream. This method of pollution control is the most effective and, as the costs of pollution control and waste disposal increase, is considered one of the most efficient.  The current environmental management methods typically follow a hierarchy of response so as to reduce waste volumes, treatment, and disposal costs and environmental impacts.  Thus product and process technologies are improved, modified or even replaced by what has become known as “eco-products”, “eco-processes” or “eco-technologies”

2.       Environmental & Public Health: The environmental health program consists of a wide range of activities

to control physical environmental factors that could affect the well-being of the community. Such activities include sanitary inspections of restaurants and public kitchens, inspect all public places such as swimming pools, parks etc to ensure public health is not threatened, and to enforce public health code and regulations. They also take measures to ensure the control of pests and communicable diseases.  

Sources: [1, 9, 14 ]

2.2   Reactive Strategy in the Jubail

Reactive strategy is the management of pollutants resulting from industrial production and from urban growth in order to minimize their effects on people and the environment.   This strategy, in JIC and its immediate region, reacts to any threat from these sources to quality of human health and of the natural environment. The effectiveness of specific instruments used in under this strategy depends on the readiness of the response system and the speed with which actions are taken. Some elements of the proactive strategy applied in JIC and discuss below include the establishment of oil spill combat program, the building of solid and toxic wastes disposal factory, the establishment of recycling and re-use system.

2.2.1  Oil spill combat program

Oil Pollution Protection is one of the key proactive programs developed by the RCJY with the strong backing of the Saudi Arabian government in order to counter the unintended effects of the intense industrial development activities in the JIC region.  The government, and indeed the RCJY, seems to be proud of the distinguished efforts in combating and controlling the largest ever oil spill in Arabian Gulf during the Gulf war and in protecting strategic utilities and facilities. Table 8 indicates how the Oil Spill Combat Program was used.

Source: [ 16 ]

Table 9:  Total  waste received by BeeA’h  at Jubail Industrial City 1989-1994

Source: [14 ]

2.2.2 Solid and toxic wastes disposal industry (Al-BeeA’h)

New demands of handling industrial hazardous wastes has led to the emergence of new management activities such as minimisation, recycling or re-use, treatment, storage, disposal and destruction of such wastes. The state of the art hazardous waste incinerator built by BeeA’H in JIC, the only one of its kind in Saudi Arabia, has a guaranteed stack emission performance standards that are superior to the standards currently required of hazardous waste incinerators in the USA [14].  This facility treats and disposes both hazardous and non-hazardous industrial wastes and Table 9 shows the total hazardous and industrial wastes it received, treated and disposed of between 1989 and 1994.

3.       CONCLUSION

Usually with success come challenges as well as opportunities.  The real challenge is keep on the same path that seeks to balance “economy and ecology” and to avoid the “pollute first and pay later” mentality that in the 1960s led the Western industrial strategy into what some researchers called a “highly toxic model.”  The lessons of the Western industrial strategy did not seem to have been learnt by rapidly industrializing Asian nations, whose so-called economic miracle based on unmanaged industrialization, is turning into an environmental nightmare. This is largely because between “1975 and 1988, according to World bank estimates, toxic releases went up 500% in Indonesia, 800% in the Philippine, and 1,200% in Thailand.  Asia’s cities, rivers and lakes are among the world’s most polluted, and its forests are merely depleted” [15].

Balancing industrial growth with environmental quality, as the RCJY can testify, requires not only enormous investments in pollution control and prevention, but also farsighted and effective management.  Farsightedness requires scientifically collected and carefully analyzed information that can reveal emerging critical problems as well as most significant resource and explore the potential links between them. Thus by increasing its intelligence, RCJY may be better placed to resolve more that problem with a single solution. It may also is a better position to link natural processes and features to health, safety, and welfare, so that social costs and benefits related to natural environmental may be weighed against other social, economic and political concerns.  This strategic linking of purely environmental quality concerns with issues of economic development, social welfare and access to opportunity is what sustainable development is all about and therein lies a great opportunity for RCJY. The Kingdom has already subscribed to the concept of sustainable development and its key action plan in the form of Local Agenda 21.  RCJY stands a good chance becoming a model of how to organize a large-scale project through which a desert is turned into lush environment in which rapid industrial output is achieved with high level of environmental quality.

References

[1] RCJY, No date, Jubail Environmental Program: Environment and Industry in Harmony,                Directorate General for Jubail Project. Also similar statements have been made the             Environment Control Unit of the Directorate General for Yanbu Project and by the        Ministry of Planning, 1995, Sixth Development Plan

[ 2] United Nation Environmental Program, 1995, UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize,             Nairobi, Kenya.     

[ 3]   SHARQ, Eastern Petrolchemical Company, (No date), safety and the Environment,             Madinat Al-Jubail Al-Sinaiyah

[ 4]  SABIC News 1995, SABIC at K’95, Directorate of Public Relations, Riyadh

[ 5]  RCJY, 1978, Jubail Industrial Complex Community Plan, Vols 1-14, Directorate General                        for Jubail    Project. Also, Bechtel Incorpated, the project’s management consultants,                   has many years of world-wide experience to draw from.

[ 6]  RCJY, 1994, Third Census Report,  Urban Planning Department

[ 7 ]  RCJY, 1997, Jubail Industrial Review  1996-1997 p.3, Investment Promotion             Department

[  8 ]  Eckholm, E and L. Brown 1977, Worldwatch Paper 13; Spreading Desert the Land of                        Man,             Worldwatch Institute, Washington DC. quoted by Abdel-Latif and Roeseler                       1985

[ 9 ]  Abdel-Latif, M. A. and W. A. Roeseler, 1985:162, Settling the desert with advanced             industrial             technology: Two recent Saudi Arabian settlement projects. Ekistis 311,             March/April

[10 ]  RCJY , 1992:17, Jubail Development Review Vol 7 No. 2.

[11 ] Guinness Book of Records, 1998. P168, Guinness Publishing Ltd. 

[12] RCJY, 1978:73, Land Use Plan, Directorate General for Jubail Project.

[13] RCJY, 1994, Landscaping in Jubail Industrial City (in Arabic), Directorate for Jubail                Project

[14] Rafferty, Peter J.  (1995) Definition and Regulation of Hazardous Wastes, Short Course             on Hazardous Waste Management, KFUPM, December 16-20 1995

[15] Agarwal, Anil, 1997, Time Magazine, Special Issue: Our Precious Planet, November                    1997, p.79.

[16] RCJY, 1991, Oil Spill: It’s immediate impact on the environment in the vicinity of                                 Madinat Al-Jubail Al-Sinaiyah. See also Jubail Development Review, June 1991,   Vol.6, No.1

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